Technological Disruption
The Internet of Things
The
Internet of Things is the foundational intelligent infrastructure of
the new economy — integrating a Communications Internet, Energy Internet
and Logistics Internet into a single IoT operating system. Hundreds of
billions of consumer products will eventually be connected to the
internet and to one another, feeding real-time data to an integrated
global neural network. Corporations around the world are already
beginning to develop and distribute “smart” appliances and products that
are capable of being connected to the internet and controlled by
consumers via Wi-Fi. One of the most powerful effects of this global
network of things will be the comprehensive energy efficiency and
productivity gains across society, largely afforded by big data
analysis. According to Jeremy Rifkin:
“The
Internet of Things will connect everything with everyone in an
integrated global network. People, machines, natural resources,
production lines, logistics networks, consumption habits, recycling
flows, and virtually every other aspect of economic and social life will
be linked via sensors and software to the IoT platform, continually
feeding Big Data to every node — business, homes, vehicles — moment to
moment, in real time. Big Data, in turn, will be processed with advanced
analytics, transformed into predictive algorithms, and programmed into
automated systems to improve thermodynamic efficiencies, dramatically
increase productivity, and reduce the marginal cost of producing and
delivering a full range of goods and services to near zero across the
entire economy.”[3]
The
IoT is inherently designed to be open, distributed, and collaborative,
giving anyone the freedom to utilize this collective data, create
applications, and contribute to increasing economic efficiencies.
However, the IoT is not just about data analysis. One of its defining
features is making possible the transition from carbon-based fuels to
renewable energy sources through a distributed Energy Internet. Taken as
the sum of its parts, the Internet of Things will enable humanity to
use less of the Earth’s resources dramatically more efficiently and,
ultimately, aid in re-integrating our species with the biosphere of the
planet.
Aggregate energy efficiency is the “ratio of useful to potential physical work that can be extracted from materials.”[4]
“During
the period from 1900 to 1980 in the United States, aggregate energy
efficiency…steadily rose along with the development of the nation’s
infrastructure, from 2.48 percent to 12.3 percent…leveling off in the
late 1990s at around 13 percent with the completion of the Second
Industrial Revolution infrastructure. Despite a significant increase in
efficiency, which gave the United States extraordinary productivity and
growth, nearly 87 percent of the energy used in the Second Industrial
Revolution was wasted during transmission.”[5]
Further
efficiency gains under the current fossil fuel-based infrastructure are
limited, since the technologies designed for this system, such as the
internal-combustion engine and the centralized electricity grid, have
few productivity gains left to exploit. However, studies indicate that,
through a transition to an IoT infrastructure, “it is conceivable to
increase aggregate energy efficiency to 40 percent or more in the next
40 years, amounting to a dramatic increase in productivity beyond what
the economy experienced in the twentieth century.”[6]
Distributed Renewable Energy
An Internet of Things infrastructure will incorporate an Energy Internet, in which prosumers (consumers
who have become their own producers) are empowered to share excess
energy across an open and distributed IoT enabled smart-grid.
Initially,
smart appliances may increase energy efficiency in the home by simply
communicating with one another to reduce energy use. For example, this
could be accomplished by not operating at peak times on the grid, or not
all turning on at once, or charging an electric vehicle (EV) during the
cheapest and most efficient hours of the night. However, as
technologies for renewable and free energy harvesting (e.g., solar,
wind, etc.) become exponentially more efficient and accessible to the
average consumer it becomes possible for every household to harvest
their own free and renewable energy, and share any excess (which may
initially be done by selling it back to the utility company for a
reduction in costs) across a decentralized smart-grid, or Energy
Internet. It is even possible to utilize EVs as an energy storage device
and to distribute this stored energy back into the grid during peak
times.
Numerous sources of
clean and renewable energy are already available, including: solar,
wind, wave and tidal action, ocean currents, temperature differentials,
falling water, geothermal, electrostatic, hydrogen, natural gas, algae,
biomass, bacteria, phase transformation, fresnel lenses, and
thermionics, amongst others. Geothermal energy alone can supply more
than five hundred times the energy contained in all of the world’s known
fossil fuel resources.[7] Additionally, every hour the sun radiates
more energy onto the earth than the entire human population uses in one
year.[8] Harnessing just one-tenth of 1 percent of the sun’s energy that
hits the Earth would give us six times the energy that the global
economy now consumes.[9]
Just
as Moore’s Law applies to computing technology, solar and wind
harvesting technologies are now experiencing exponential growth curves
of their own, with geothermal, biomass and hydro expected to follow. For
solar photovoltaic cells, the same “doubling” phenomenon as seen with
computer chips has been observed, and price has tended to drop 20
percent for every doubling of industry capacity.[10]
The price of crystalline silicon photovoltaic cells has fallen from $60
per watt in 1976 to $0.66 per watt in 2013, while efficiency of triple
junction solar cells has reached 41 percent in the lab.[11] According to
industry analysts, “the harvesting technology for solar and small wind
power will be as cheap as cell phones and laptops within 15 years.”[12]
Within
10 years, it is projected that every building in America and Europe
will be equipped with digital smart-meters that will be capable of
optimizing the efficiency of devices and appliances within the home,[13]
as well as continuously feeding and receiving real-time data from the
IoT network. In the coming years, prosumers will be empowered to harvest
and freely share their own clean and renewable energy across a
distributed Energy Internet on an IoT infrastructure.
3D Printing and the Decentralization of Manufacturing
3D
printing is the technology behind the manufacturing model that will
accompany an IoT infrastructure. As with wind and solar harvesting
technology, the development of 3D printers is on an exponential growth
curve where the first “low-cost” Stratasys printer entered the market at
$30,000 in 2002, while today’s entry-level 3D printers start at just
$300. Already, 3D printers are producing a wide range of products, from
jewelry and artwork, to car and airplane parts, human prostheses and
bionic implants, bioprinted cells and tissue (with the first 3D printed
transplant-ready organ scheduled to be printed in 2015[14]), functioning
mechanical devices (including weapons), to furniture, to full-scale
buildings and parts of infrastructure; even food is now being 3D
printed, along with replacement parts for the International Space
Station that are currently being printed out in zero gravity orbit.
To
increase printing efficiencies, companies are currently exploring the
use of abundant and locally available feedstock to create the printer
filament. Mcor recently introduced a 3D printer that uses cheap paper as
its feedstock, and prints out 3D products in full color with the
consistency of wood at 5 percent of the cost. Other such projects
include a 3D printer that uses sand to create glass objects, and the
Filabot printer which grinds up and recycles plastic objects to produce
its own filament. Sand, rock, and virtually any type of discarded waste
material have the potential to be used for 3D construction and in 3D
printed buildings. The European Space Agency has even designed a printer
with the potential to use lunar soil as its feedstock to construct
buildings on the moon.[15]
Though
3D printing may still be a niche area of manufacturing, its future
disruptive potential is vast. Of most significance, the designs or
schematics for 3D printed products are downloadable digital files that
are able to be instantaneously shared online to any point on the planet,
just as any type of digital media file. As with other online networks,
3D printing communities, such as Thingiverse or Youmagine, are doing
away with intellectual property protection and are instead opting for
open-source sharing, making their products freely available for anyone
to use and modify. In this way, printed products can be made instantly
available worldwide at a fraction of the cost and eliminate the need for
long-range shipping. Additionally, 3D printers use just one-tenth of
the material of traditional manufacturing,[16] can print their own spare
parts, require very little human labor, and can create single
customized products or large batches designed to order at virtually the
same unit cost and without the need to retrofit an entire manufacturing
facility, giving 3D printing immense advantages in efficiency and
productivity.
3D printing
will drive the decentralization of manufacturing as it scales. Embedded
in an Internet of Things infrastructure, anyone on the planet is enabled
to become a prosumer and create products for use or sharing over global
networks. By allowing anyone and everyone access to a highly efficient
means of production, 3D printing will reduce marginal costs to near zero
for the majority of consumer products while circumventing and
undermining traditional markets of exchange.
Cryptocurrency, Peer-to-Peer Finance and Blockchain 2.0
Though cryptocurrency and its underlying Blockchain
may be several of the newest disruptive technologies (the Bitcoin
whitepaper having been released in 2008, with the currency coming online
the following year), their underlying applications are easily the most
widespread (many of which are only now beginning to be explored), and
their ultimate potential for disruption is likely yet to be realized.
Cryptocurrency,
such as Bitcoin, is the mode of financial exchange that has been
painfully absent from an increasingly interconnected world of instant
digital communications. The digital currency is built upon an
open-source protocol (its code is available for anyone to view), is
secured by cryptography, and enables peer-to-peer transactions to take
place over a decentralized global network without the need for any sort
of intermediary third party (e.g., bank, government, etc). Essentially,
it is a global decentralized digital currency, outside the realm of
control of any centralized governing authority or entity.
Cryptocurrency
transactions can be instantaneously sent anywhere in the world, in any
denomination, with next to no transaction fee. This characteristic alone
gives cryptocurrency the ability to reinvigorate and revolutionize the
world of micro-payments, micro-lending, and remittance payments. With
digital cryptocurrencies, foreign workers around the world are able to
transfer remittance payments back to their families without having to
pay exorbitant fees, often upwards of $30 USD per transaction, charged
by companies such as Western Union. The micro-lending model, used to
fund startup businesses and humanitarian projects around the world, has
similarly been hindered by high global transfer fees on small sums and
can now be reinvigorated through free-flowing cryptocurrency
transactions.
Furthermore,
cryptocurrency presents an opportunity to circumvent the ad-based
revenue model for online digital content creation. Currently, user
created content posted to YouTube, for example, takes in revenue through
short advertisements that viewers are forced to watch, while the third
party host (in this case Google) assumes a percentage of revenue from
each creator. With the ability to send direct peer-to-peer
micro-payments, it is possible to support content creators directly,
without the need for any sort of third party intermediary. In the same
way, small denominations of cryptocurrency could be attached to social
media “likes,” empowering users to directly support one another for
content creation and sharing— further incentivizing the creation of
quality content and online initiatives. Even if just five or ten cents
worth of cryptocurrency is attached to a “like,” if a video has
one-hundred thousand views and half of those people send a five cent
“like,” the content creator will directly receive $2,500 for their
content, without the need for any corporate advertisement or third party
fees.
The underlying
technology that enables these secure peer-to-peer transactions to take
place over a decentralized network is called the Blockchain.
Cryptocurrency protocols, like Bitcoin, were simply the first widespread
application of this technology. Numerous Blockchain 2.0 applications are now in development, many of which could be used to help manage an IoT infrastructure.
Smart contracts
are computer programs that can automatically execute the terms of a
contract once the agreed upon conditions are fulfilled. These could
include simple transactions such as an online shopping purchase, or
executing the terms of a will. Moreover, as smart devices and products
continue to proliferate across an Internet of Things infrastructure they
will increasingly integrate and register with the Blockchain and be
able to be bought, sold and operated in line with the terms of smart
contracts. For example, a car could be programmed to only operate for
its rightful owner, or a house could be rented out whose doors will
unlock via the tenant’s phone for a pre-determined length of time.[17]
The
applications of the Blockchain are far-reaching, and largely beyond the
scope of this article. The final application that will be mentioned
here, that may be useful in a Collaborative Commons, is the potential to
decentralize governance. Over the Blockchain, it is possible to conduct
cryptographically secure and anonymous digital voting across the globe,
where a unique crypto-token could be issued to the pool of voters that
could then be used to cast a digital vote. Given the simplicity of
conducting a crypto-vote, it is possible that democracies could become more secure, liquid,
and less centralized, such that individuals would be able to vote
directly on major issues themselves, rather than having to rely on
elected representatives who are often under the influence of partisan
politics, corporate lobbyists and politically motivated
short-sightedness.
Though
cryptocurrency and the Blockchain are relatively recent technologies, it
is likely that both will be integral to the IoT infrastructure and play
a significant role in facilitating and managing the new economy.
Automation and the End of Wage Labor
By
now it is no secret that robotics, artificial intelligence (AI), big
data, advanced analytics and algorithms are increasingly replacing human
labor. Between 1997 and 2005, “manufacturing output increased by 60
percent in the United States while 3.9 million manufacturing jobs were
eliminated during roughly the same period.”[18] Labor that was once
outsourced to cheaper work forces overseas is now being repatriated with
advanced robotics that are cheaper and more efficient than their
foreign counterparts. Beyond manufacturing, logistics is becoming
increasingly automated, from autonomous robots and storage systems in
warehouses to driverless vehicles that are already beginning to be seen
on public roadways, increasing efficiency and decreasing marginal cost
at every step of the logistics value chain. Similarly, many white-collar
and service industry positions are being transferred to machines just
as quickly, eliminating the need for secretaries, phone operators,
travel agents, bank tellers, cashiers, etc. The online retail sector is
growing by 15 percent per year and is expected to double by 2020.[19]
With much higher costs and payrolls, it is likely that many
brick-and-mortar retailers will ultimately succumb to their virtual
equivalents.
Professionals
and knowledge workers are equally expendable, as advanced algorithms and
AI are increasingly utilizing big data to recognize patterns, advance
hypotheses and implement solutions. Many formulaic news and sports
articles are now being written by AI, which have been capable of passing
the Turing test online for some time, and can be published within
minutes of an event.[20] Professionals from lawyers, to accountants, to
middle managers and marketers — all are facing replacement by innovative
big data algorithms.
The
complete automation of the workforce has the ability to free humanity
from wage labor and for the first time in history allow individuals to
pursue their true passions, free of any sort of debt or servitude. There
is no task that could not ultimately be carried out by machines or
managed by sophisticated artificial intelligence. Computers will
eventually be able to design their own programs, improve and repair
their own circuitry, and update information about the social needs of
humanity. Autonomous machines and self-erecting structures could
excavate canals, dig tunnels, construct bridges and dams, and
efficiently build advanced infrastructure on a global scale. Human
participation would consist of selecting the desired ends.
Over
the coming decades, wage labor and the means of production will be
increasingly handed off to intelligent technologies. Simultaneously,
however, the build-out of an IoT infrastructure (which will also
contribute to one final surge of wage labor) will usher in a new
organizational model, characterized by distinct values that can already
be seen emerging.